Limonene
OTHER NAME(S): Alpha-Limonene, Alpha-Limonène, Dipentene, D-Limonene, D-Limonène, L-Limonene, L-Limonène, R-Limonene, R-Limonène, S-Limonene, S-Limonène, Limonene, Limoneno, Limonène
Overview
Limonene is a chemical found in the peels of citrus fruits and in other plants. It is used to make medicine.
Limonene is used for obesity, cancer, and bronchitis, but there is no good scientific evidence to support these uses.
In foods, beverages, and chewing gum, limonene is used as a flavoring.
Uses
Insufficient Evidence for
- Cancer. One form of limonene (D-limonene) seems to build up in tumors in people with advanced cancer when it is taken by mouth. The high levels of limonene in the tumors may slow down the progress of the cancer, but their effect on the person's survival is uncertain.
- Obesity.
- Short-term swelling (inflammation) of the airways in the lungs (acute bronchitis).
- Other conditions.
More evidence is needed to rate the effectiveness of limonene for these uses.
Side Effects
When taken by mouth: Limonene is LIKELY SAFE when taken in food amounts. It is POSSIBLY SAFE for most people when taken by mouth in medicinal amounts for up to one year.
When applied to the skin: Limonene is POSSIBLY SAFE when applied to the skin in amounts typically found in fragrances and personal hygiene products. It can cause skin reactions in people who are allergic to limonene.
Precautions
When taken by mouth: Limonene is LIKELY SAFE when taken in food amounts. It is POSSIBLY SAFE for most people when taken by mouth in medicinal amounts for up to one year.
When applied to the skin: Limonene is POSSIBLY SAFE when applied to the skin in amounts typically found in fragrances and personal hygiene products. It can cause skin reactions in people who are allergic to limonene.
Pregnancy and breast-feeding: Limonene is LIKELY SAFE in food amounts, but there's not enough information to know if it's safe in larger medicinal amounts. Stay on the safe side and stick to the amounts found in foods.
Interactions
Moderate Interaction
Be cautious with this combination
- Medications changed by the liver (Cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) substrates) interacts with LimoneneSome medications are changed and broken down by the liver. Limonene might increase how quickly the liver breaks down some medications. Taking limonene along with some medications that are changed by the liver can lead to a variety of effects and side effects. Before taking limonene talk to your healthcare provider if you take any medications that are changed by the liver. Some of these medications that are changed by the liver include diclofenac (Cataflam, Voltaren), ibuprofen (Motrin), meloxicam (Mobic), and piroxicam (Feldene), amitriptyline (Elavil), warfarin (Coumadin), glipizide (Glucotrol), losartan (Cozaar), and others.
- Medications that decrease breakdown of other medications by the liver (Cytochrome P450 2C19 (CYP2C19) inhibitors) interacts with LimoneneLimonene might be broken down by the liver. Taking limonene along with medications that decrease the break down of limonene in the liver might increase the effects and side effects of limonene. Some medications that might decrease the breakdown of limonene in the liver include cimetidine (Tagamet), fluvoxamine (Luvox), omeprazole (Prilosec); ticlopidine (Ticlid), topiramate (Topamax), and others.
- Medications that decrease breakdown of other medications by the liver (Cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) inhibitors) interacts with LimoneneLimonene might be broken down by the liver. Taking limonene along with medications that decrease the break down of limonene in the liver might increase the effects and side effects of limonene. Some medications that might decrease the breakdown of limonene in the liver include amiodarone (Cordarone), fluconazole (Diflucan), lovastatin (Mevacor), paroxetine (Paxil), zafirlukast (Accolate), and many others.
- Medications that increase breakdown of other medications by the liver (Cytochrome P450 2C19 (CYP2C19) inducers) interacts with LimoneneLimonene might be broken down by the liver. Taking limonene along with medications that increase the breakdown of limonene in the liver might decrease the effects of limonene. Some medications that might increase the breakdown of limonene in the liver include carbamazepine (Tegretol), prednisone (Deltasone), and rifampin (Rifadin, Rimactane).
- Medications that increase breakdown of other medications by the liver (Cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) inducers) interacts with LimoneneLimonene might be broken down by the liver. Taking limonene along with medications that increase the breakdown of limonene in the liver might decrease the effects of limonene. Some medications that might increase the breakdown of limonene in the liver include rifampin (Rifadin, Rimactane) and secobarbital (Seconal).
Dosing
The appropriate dose of limonene depends on several factors such as the user's age, health, and several other conditions. At this time there is not enough scientific information to determine an appropriate range of doses for limonene. Keep in mind that natural products are not always necessarily safe and dosages can be important. Be sure to follow relevant directions on product labels and consult your pharmacist or physician or other healthcare professional before using.
References
- Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Title 21. Part 182 -- Substances Generally Recognized As Safe. Available at: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=182
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- Turner SD, Tinwell H, Piegorsch W, et al.The male rat carcinogens limonene and sodium saccharin are not mutagenic to male Big Blue rats. Mutagenesis 2001;16:329-32.
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- Dittmar D, Schuttelaar MLA. Contact sensitization to hydroperoxides of limonene and linalool: results of consecutive patch testing and clinical relevance. Contact Dermatitis 2019;80(2):101-9.
- Gatica-Ortega ME, Pastor-Nieto MA, Schoendorff-Ortega C, Mollejo-Villanueva M, Giménez-Arnau A. Lymphomatoid contact dermatitis caused by limonene hydroperoxides confirmed by an exposure provocation test with the involved personal hygiene products. Contact Dermatitis 2018;78(3):230-3.
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- Ivashkin VT, Kudryavtseva AV, Krasnov GS, et al. Efficacy and safety of a food supplement with standardized menthol, limonene, and gingerol content in patients with irritable bowel syndrome: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. PLoS One. 2022 Jun 15;17(6):e0263880.
- Valerii MC, Turroni S, Ferreri C, et al. Effect of a fiber D-limonene-enriched food supplement on intestinal microbiota and metabolic parameters of mice on a high-fat diet. Pharmaceutics. 2021 Oct 21;13(11):1753.
- Zhao C, Zhang Z, Nie D, Li Y. Protective effect of lemon essential oil and its major active component, D-limonene, on intestinal injury and inflammation of E. coli-challenged mice. Front Nutr. 2022;9:843096.